Abstract
The paper introduces a new Slovak diagnostic tool, the Test of Silent Word Reading, designed to assess the fluency of silent reading at word level. This brief test takes only 3 minutes, making it suitable for individual and group administration. It comprises two distinct forms, A and B, facilitating repeated testing for monitoring reading progress. Building on a pilot survey conducted among primary education pupils, the test demonstrated acceptable reliability and
strong concurrent validity. The study’s objective was to investigate whether pupils diagnosed with dyslexia perform worse on the Test of Silent Word Reading than their non-dyslexic counterparts and whether this test could be utilized for diagnostic purposes in the future. Analyzing a sample of 23 pupils diagnosed with dyslexia and 23 control pupils without dyslexia from grades 2 to 5 in primary schools, the study confirmed that dyslexic pupils performed significantly worse in both versions of the test (A and B), as evidenced by the observed scores, raw scores, errors, and percentage correct. However, there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups in terms of correction parameters. The observed differences exhibited a moderately strong effect size. The study’s findings suggest that the Test of Silent Word Reading holds promise for future diagnostic applications in identifying dyslexia among school-age children in clinical and educational settings.
References
- Adlof, S. M., Scoggins, J., Brazendale, A., Babb, S., & Petscher, Y. (2017). Identifying children at risk for language impairment or dyslexia with group-administered measures. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60(12), 3507–3522. Search in Google Scholar
- Adlof, S. M., & Hogan, T. P. (2018). Understanding dyslexia in the context of developmental language disorders. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 49(4), 762–773. Search in Google Scholar
- Bar-Kochva, I. (2013). What are the underlying skills of silent reading acquisition? A developmental study from kindergarten to the 2nd grade. Reading and Writing, 26, 1417–1436. Search in Google Scholar
- Barbosa, T., Rodrigues, C. C., Mello, C. B., Silva, M. C. S. E., & Bueno, O., F., A. (2019). Executive functions in children with dyslexia. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria, 77(4), 254–259. Search in Google Scholar
- Baschenis, I. M. C., Farinotti, L., Zavani, E., Grumi, S., Bernasconi, P., Rosso, E., Chiappedi, M. (2021). Reading skills of children with dyslexia improved less than expected during the COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. Children, 8(7). Search in Google Scholar
- Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Trivedi, P., Olson, E., Gould, L., Hiramatsu, S., York Westhaggen, S. (2010). Applying the Multiple Dimensions of Reading Fluency to Assessment and Instruction. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 28(1), 3–18. Search in Google Scholar
- Boada, R., Willcutt, E. G. & Pennington, B. F. (2012). Understanding the comorbidity between dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Topics in Language Disorders, 32(3), 264–284. Search in Google Scholar
- Brosnan, M., Demetre, J., Hamill, S., Robson, K., Shepherd, H., & Cody, G. (2002). Search in Google Scholar
- Executive functioning in adults and children with developmental dyslexia. Neuropsychologia, 40 (12), 2144–2155. Search in Google Scholar
- Burns, M. K., Kwoka, H., Lim, B., Crone, M., Haegele, K., Parker, D. C., Scholin, S. E. (2011). Minimum reading fluency necessary for comprehension among second grade students. Psychology in the Schools, 48(2), 124–132. Search in Google Scholar
- Caravolas, M., Lervĺg, A., Mousikou, P., Efrim, C., Litavsky, M., Onochie-Quintanilla, E., Hulme, C. (2012). Common patterns of prediction of literacy development in different alphabetic orthographies. Psychological Science, 23(6), 678–686. Search in Google Scholar
- Caravolas, M., Mikulajová, M., Defior, S., & Seidlová Málková, G. (2018). Test písania zložitejších slov. Multilanguage Assessment Battery of Early Literacy. MABEL. Avai-lable on: https://www.eldel-mabel.net/sk/test/ Search in Google Scholar
- Carioti, D., Masia, M. F., Travellini, S., & Berlingeri M. (2021). Orthographic depth and developmental dyslexia: a meta-analytic study. Annals of Dyslexia, 71(3), 399–438. Search in Google Scholar
- Ciuffo, M., Myers, J., Ingrassia, M., Milanese, A., Venuti, M., Alquino, A., Gagliano, A. (2017). How fast can we read in the mind? Developmental trajectories of silent reading fluency. Reading and Writing, 30, 1667-1686. Search in Google Scholar
- Denton, C. A., Barth, A. E., Fletcher, J. M., Wexler, J. M., Vaughn, S., Cirino, P. T., Francis, D. J. (2011). The relations among oral and silent reading fluency and comprehension in middle school: Implications for identification and instruction of students with reading difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(2), 109–135. Search in Google Scholar
- DuPaul, G. J., & Volpe, R. J. (2009). ADHD and learning disabilities: Research findings and clinical implications. Current Attention Disorders Reports, 1, 152–155. Search in Google Scholar
- European Dyslexia Association. (2020). What is dyslexia? Available on: https://eda-info.eu/what-is-dyslexia/ Search in Google Scholar
- Gagliano, A., Ciuffo, M., Ingrassia, M., Ghidoni, E., Angeli, D., Benedetto, L., Stella, G. (2015). Silent reading fluency: implications for the assessment of adults with developmental dyslexia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37(9), 972–980. Search in Google Scholar
- Grigorenko, E. L., Compton, D. L, Fuchs, L. S., Wagner, R. K., Willcutt, E. G, & Fletcher, J. M. (2020). Understanding, educating, and supporting children with specific learning disabilities: 50 years of science and practice. American Psychologist, 75(1), 37–51. Search in Google Scholar
- Hajdúk, M. (2020). Metodológia a dizajny výskumu v klinickej psychológii. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave. Search in Google Scholar
- Hall, R. et al. (2014). The relationship between expressive vocabulary knowledge and reading skills for adult struggling readers. Journal of Research in Reading, 37(1), 87–100. Search in Google Scholar
- Hammill, D. D., Wiederholt, J. L., & Allen, E. A. (2014). TOSCRF: Test of silent contextual reading fluency. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed. Search in Google Scholar
- Handler, S. M. & Fierson, W. M. (2011). Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision. Pediatrics, 127(3), 818–856. Search in Google Scholar
- Christodoulou, J. A., Del Tufo, S. N., Lymberis, J., Saxler, P. K., Ghosh, S. S., Triantafyllou, C., Gabrieli, J. D. (2014). Brain bases of reading fluency in typical reading and impaired fluency in dyslexia. PLoS One, 9(7). Search in Google Scholar
- Kim, Y. S. G., Petscher, Y., & Vortius, Ch. (2019). Unpacking eye movements during oral and silent reading and their relations to reading proficiency in beginning readers. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 58, 102–120. Search in Google Scholar
- Krieber, M. et al. (2016). The relation between reading skills and eye movement patterns in adolescent readers: evidence from a regular orthography. PLoS ONE, 2016, 11(1), 1–15. Search in Google Scholar
- Krieber, M. et al. (2017). Eye movements during silent and oral reading in a regular orthography: basic characteristics and correlations with childhood cognitive abilities and adolescent reading skills. PloS ONE, 12(2), 1-15. Search in Google Scholar
- Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 3–21. Search in Google Scholar
- Laubrock, J., & Kliegl, R. (2015). The eye-voice span during reading aloud. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(1432), 1–19. Search in Google Scholar
- Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). Defining dyslexia, comorbidity, teachers’ knowledge of language and reading: A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1–14. Search in Google Scholar
- Lou, C., Duan, X., Altarelli, I., Sweeney, J. A., Ramus, F., & Zhao J. (2019). White matter network connectivity deficits in developmental dyslexia. Human Brain Mapping, 40(2), 505–516. Search in Google Scholar
- Matějček, Z. (1974). Vývojové poruchy čtení. Praha: Státní pedagogické nakladatelství. Mather, N., Hammill, D. D., Allen, A., & Roberts, R. (2014). Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency. Examiner’s manual. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed. Search in Google Scholar
- Mikulajová, M., Vencelová, L. & Caravolas, M. (2012). Test čítania s doplňovaním slov. In M. Mikulajová, M. (Ed.), Čítanie, písanie a dyslexia (p. 160-176). Bratislava: Slovenská asociácia logopédov. Search in Google Scholar
- Morris, D., & Turnbull, P. (2007). A survey-based exploration of the impact of dyslexia on career progression of UK registered nurses. Journal of Nursing Management, 15 (1), 97–106. Search in Google Scholar
- National Institute for Education (2019). Návrh minimálnych diagnostických štandardov pre špecifické poruchy učenia, poruchu aktivity a pozornosti a narušenú komunikačnú schopnosť. Bratislava: Štátny pedagogický ústav. Available on: https://www.statpedu.sk/files/sk/vyskum/publikacna-cinnost/publikacie/navrh-minimalnych-diagnostickych-standardov-specificke-poruchy-ucenia-poruchu-aktivity-pozornos-ti-narusenu-komunikacnu-schopnost.pdf Search in Google Scholar
- Norton, E. S. & Wolf, M. (2012). Rapid automatized naming (RAN) and reading fluency: implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 427–452. Search in Google Scholar
- O’Connor, R. E. (2018). Reading fluency and students with reading disabilities: How fast is fast enough to promote reading comprehension? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51(2), 124–136. Search in Google Scholar
- Ouellette, G. P. (2006). What’s meaning got to do with it: The role of vocabulary in word reading and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 554–566. Search in Google Scholar
- Perfetti, Ch. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific studies of reading, 11(4), 357–383. Search in Google Scholar
- Prior, S. M., Fenwick, K. D., Saunders, K. S., Ouellette, R., O’Quinn, Ch., & Harvey, S. (2011). Comprehension after oral and silent reading: Does grade level matter? Literacy Research and Instruction, 50(3), 183–194. Search in Google Scholar
- Psyridou, M., Tolvanen, A., Niemi, P., Lerkkanen, M.-K., Poikkeus, A.-M., & Torppa, M. (2023). Development of silent reading fluency and reading comprehension across grades 1 to 9: Unidirectional or bidirectional effects between the two skills? Reading and Writing, 36, 1969–1996. Search in Google Scholar
- Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372–422. Search in Google Scholar
- Rayner, K., Schotter, E. R., Masson, M. E. J., Potter, M. C., & Treimanm R. (2016). So much to read, so little time: How do we read, and can speed reading help? Psychological Science, 17(1), 4–34. Search in Google Scholar
- Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A., & Rayner, K. (2006). E–Z Reader: A cognitive-control, serial-attention model of eye-movement behavior during reading. Cognitive Systems Research, 7(1), 4–22. Search in Google Scholar
- Reis, A., Araújo, S., Morais, I. S., & Faísca, L. (2020). Reading and reading-related skills in adults with dyslexia from different orthographic systems: A review and meta-analysis. Annals of Dyslexia, 70, 339–368. Search in Google Scholar
- Robinson, M. F. (2019). The relation among phonological processing, oral and silent reading fluency, and reading comprehension for students with dyslexia: A longitudinal investigation (Dissertation). Memphis, Tennessee: University of Memphis. Search in Google Scholar
- Robinson, M. F., Meisinger, E. B., & Joyner, R. E. (2019). The influence of oral versus silent reading on reading comprehension in students with reading disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 42(2), 105–116. Search in Google Scholar
- Share, D. L. (2008). On the Anglocentricities of current reading research and practice: The perils of overreliance on an “outlier” orthography. Psychological Bulletin, 134(4), 584–615. Search in Google Scholar
- Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2005). Dyslexia (specific reading disability). Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1301-1309. Search in Google Scholar
- Shiels, K., & Hawk, L. W. (2010). Self-regulation in ADHD: The role of error processing. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(8), 951-961. Search in Google Scholar
- Schöffelová, M., Mikulajová, M. (2012). Vývoj různých aspektu čtění ve slovenštine. Pedagogika, 62(1–2), 111–125. Search in Google Scholar
- Schulte-Körne, G. (2010). The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International, 107(41), 718–727. Search in Google Scholar
- Slovak Centre of Scientific and Technical Information (2020). Štatistická ročenka CVTI SR 2020. Available on: https://www.cvtisr.sk/cvti-sr-vedecka-kniznica/informacie-o-skolstve/statistiky/statisticka-rocenka-publikacia/statisticka-rocenka-zakladne-skoly.html?page_id=9601 Search in Google Scholar
- Smyrnakis, I., Andreadakis, V., Rina, A., Boufachrentin, N., & Aslanides, I. M. (2021). Silent versus Reading Out Loud modes: An eye-tracking study. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 14(2). Search in Google Scholar
- Šelingerová, A. (2018). Kognitívne činitele vývinu gramotnosti u adolescentov (Dizertačná práca). Bratislava: Paneurópska vysoká škola. Search in Google Scholar
- Vagge, A. et al. 2015. Evaluation of ocular movements in patients with dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 65(1), 24–32. Search in Google Scholar
- van den Boer, M., van Bergen, E., & de Jong, P. F. (2014). Underlying skills of oral and silent reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 128, 138–151. Search in Google Scholar
- van den Boer, M., Bazen, L., & de Bree, E. (2022). The same yet different: Oral and silent reading in children and adolescents with dyslexia. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 51, 803–817. Search in Google Scholar
- Varvara, P., Varuzza, C., Sorrentino, A. C., Vicari, S., & Menghini, D. (2014). Executive functions in developmental dyslexia. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8. Search in Google Scholar
- Váryová, B. (2012). Skúšky čítania pre mladší školský vek. In M. Mikulajová (Ed.), Search in Google Scholar
- Čítanie, písanie a dyslexia (s. 126–159). Bratislava: Slovenská asociácia logopédov. Search in Google Scholar
- Vencelová, L., Mikulajová, M., & Caravolas, M. (2012). Hodnotenie pravopisných schopností u starších žiakov. In M. Mikulajová (Ed.), Čítanie, písanie a dyslexia (s. 223–241). Bratislava: Slovenská asociácia logopédov. Search in Google Scholar
- Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(1), 2–40. Search in Google Scholar
- Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., & Pearson, N. A. (2010). TOSREC: Test of silent reading Efficiency and comprehension. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed. Search in Google Scholar
- Wiederholt, J. L., & Blalock, G. (2000). GSRT: Gray Silent Reading Tests. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed. Search in Google Scholar
- Wise, J. C., Sevcik, R. A., Morris, R. D., Lovett, M. W., & Wolf, M. (2007). The relationship among receptive and expressive vocabulary, listening comprehension, prereading skills, word identification skills, and reading comprehension by children with reading disabilities. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research Speech, 50(4), 1093–109. Search in Google Scholar
- Wissinger, D. R., Truckenmiller, A. J., Konek, A. E., & Ciullo, S. (2023). The validity of two tests of silent reading fluency: A meta-analytic. Review, Reading & Writing Quarterly. Search in Google Scholar
- World Health Organization. (2019). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (11th ed.). https://icd.who.int/ Search in Google Scholar
- Xia Z., Zhang, L., Hoeft, F., Gu, B., Gong, G., & Shu, H. (2018). Neural correlates of oral word reading, silent reading comprehension, and cognitive subcomponents. Search in Google Scholar
- International Journal of Behavioral Development, 42(3), 342–356. Search in Google Scholar
- Yildiz, M. & Çetinkaya, E. (2017). The relationship between good readers’ attention, reading fluency and reading comprehension. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 5(3), 366–371. Search in Google Scholar
- Zubáková, M., & Mikulajová, M. (2021). Silné prekurzory ranej gramotnosti v slovenčine. Psychológia a patopsychológia dieťaťa, 55(1), 3–25. Search in Google Scholar
- Zubáková, M., & Bekečová, M. (2022). Test tichého čítania slov ako diagnostický nástroj na hodnotenie plynulosti čítania. Štúdie zo špeciálnej pedagogiky, 11(1), 73–88. Search in Google Scholar
- Zubáková, M., Harvanová, S., Kapalková, S., & Kevická, V. (2023). Výkony žiakov v Teste tichého čítania slov na nižšom stupni sekundárneho vzdelávania. Logopaedica XXV, 25(1), 13–20. Search in Google Scholar
- Žovinec, E. & Dufeková, A. (2014). ČÍ(s)TA. Čítanie starších: Príručka k diagnostickej batérii. Nitra: Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa. Search in Google Scholar
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.